. Mactan-Cebu International Airport. Ninoy Aquino International Airport (Manila)frequentflyer = Mabuhay Mileslounge = Mabuhay Loungesubsidiaries = Air Philippines, PAL Expressfleetsize = 46 Philippine Airlines, PhilippineAirlines.com. Accessed November 2007. (archived at on August 13, 2007) (+11 orders, +2 lease orders)destinations = 42parent = PAL Holdings, Inc.companyslogan =.
Over on The DO Loop, does a nice job visualizing the causes of airline crashes(in SAS using a mosaic plot. Library (googlesheets ) library (ggplot2 ) # we'll need the rest of the libraries later library (dplyr ) # but just getting them out of the way library (tidyr ) # this will prompt for authentication the first timemysheets% getviacsv (ws = '93-2014 FINAL' ) # take a quick lookglimpse (flightscsv ) ## Observations: 440 ## Variables: ## $ date (chr) 'd', '1993-01-06', '1993-01-09', '1993-01-31', '1993-02-08', '1993-02-28', '. ## $ planetype (chr) 't', 'Dash 8-311', 'Hawker Siddeley HS-748-234 Srs', 'Shorts SC.7 Skyvan 3-1. ## $ loc (chr) 'l', 'near Paris Charles de Gualle', 'near Surabaya Airport', 'Mt. ## $ country (chr) 'c', 'France', 'Indonesia', 'Indonesia', 'Iran', 'Taiwan', 'Macedonia', 'Nor. ## $ ref (chr) 'r', 'D-BEAT', 'PK-IHE', '9M-PID', 'EP-ITD', 'B-12238', 'PH-KXL', 'LN-TSA'. ## $ airline (chr) 'o', 'Lufthansa Cityline', 'Bouraq Indonesia', 'Pan Malaysian Air Transport'.
## $ fat (chr) 'f', '4', '15', '14', '131', '6', '83', '3', '6', '2', '32', '55', '132', '4. ## $ px (chr) 'px', '20', '29', '29', '67', '22', '56', '19', '22', '17', '38', '47', '67'. ## $ cat (chr) 'cat', 'A1', 'A1', 'A1', 'A1', 'A1', 'A1', 'A1', 'A1', 'A2', 'A1', 'A1', 'A1. ## $ phase (chr) 'p', 'approach', 'initialclimb', 'enroute', 'enroute', 'approach', 'initi. ## $ cert (chr) 'cert', 'confirmed', 'probable', 'probable', 'confirmed', 'probable', 'confi. ## $ meta (chr) 'meta', 'humanerror', 'mechanical', 'weather', 'humanerror', 'weather', 'h. ## $ cause (chr) 'cause', 'pilot & ATC error', 'engine failure', 'low visibility', 'pilot err.
## $ notes (chr) 'n', NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA. # the spreadsheet has a 'helper' row for javascript, so we nix itflightscsv%mutate ( date = as.
Date ( date ),fat = as. Numeric (fat ),px = as.
Flightscsv%%mutate (year = as. Numeric ( format ( date, '%Y' ) ) )%%mutate (phase = tolower (phase ),phase = ifelse ( grepl ( 'take', phase ), 'takeoff', phase ),phase = ifelse ( grepl ( 'climb', phase ), 'takeoff', phase ),phase = ifelse ( grepl ( 'ap', phase ), 'approach', phase ) )%%count (year, meta, phase )%%leftjoin (expand (., year, meta, phase ),., c ( 'year', 'meta', 'phase' ) )%%mutate (n = ifelse ( is.
Burleson, in, 1999 August 16, 1969 1622 Hours — About 106 miles SSE of Venice, LouisianaDriven by shrieking wind, sheets of rain hammered the high wings and fuselage of the WC-130E Hercules, striking with the power of repeated shotgun blasts. Shuddering under the onslaught, the massive plane held course and altitude, forcing its way deeper into the hurricane.On the flight deck, the pilot pulled his shoulder harness and lap belt tighter, then checked his copilot, navigator, and engineer. The ride was going to get a lot rougher.Behind him, the aerial reconnaissance weather officer, ARWO for short, operated his recording equipment. In a sense, the ARWO was top man on the mission because all flight crew efforts were to deliver his team and their gear into the very eye of the storm.Throttled back because of severe turbulence, the rugged old four-engine, turboprop transport held 10,000 feet. The Herk bumped along at 250 knots, considerably below optimum cruise speed.Each 30 seconds, automated sensing gear measured outside air temperature, dew point, aircraft altitude, and barometric pressure.
In addition, the ARWO took notes on icing, visibility, cloud types, cloud cover, and ocean surface winds. Each 400 miles, and on every pass they would make through the storm, the dropsonde system operator, or DSO, would release an instrument cluster. The dropsonde, a cylinder less than a foot and a half long and about the diameter of a baseball, was deployed with a parachute to slow its fall. Descending toward the frenzied Gulf waters, the package radioed the DSO a detailed vertical atmospheric profile.On this reconnaissance mission, the Hurricane Hunters' aircraft made only two trips into the storm's center.
Hawker Siddeley Aviation
Pressure was 901 millibars, and surface winds exceeded 175 knots—more than 200 miles per hour! Mechanical trouble cut their second intrusion short.About 250 miles south of Mobile, Alabama, just entering the eye, the number three engine failed. With the needle indicating internal turbine temperature off the scale, the crew had to shut it down before it tore itself apart. Which would probably have taken the wing along with it. Losing the engine at that critical moment did little for their confidence.The flight out was hair raising. Pressure from the wind was intense enough to make the plane's metal skin rub against the airframe, filling the Hercules with a noise like moaning. Flying on only three engines forced them to a lower air speed, which proved to be a help.
The storm radar, however, which usually could be relied on to plot the least turbulent flight path, was almost useless. The entire screen was a splotchy red, indicating chaotic weather in all directions.After 18 minutes of harrowing flight, they broke through and found themselves in relatively clean air. Hurricane-force winds extended out a full 60 miles. The crew's sighs of relief had barely subsided when the ARWO made a sobering announcement. They had just flown a crippled plane through Camille, the second most powerful hurricane to threaten the U.S. Mainland during the 20th century.
In order to obtain direct observations of the microphysical properties of clouds, field experiments are conducted using aircraft with particle measurement probes attached to the outside of the aircraft, often on the wings or along the fuselage. The aircraft then flies into the cloud recording the sizes, shapes, and counts of particles as well as the total mass content of the cloud in situ. Table 1 shows the various aircraft that have been used in some field experiments sampling convectively forced mixed-phase clouds. This list is not exhaustive, but shows examples of where observations have been conducted and the multitude of aircraft that have been used. AircraftField experimentLocationUniversity of Wyoming King AirCooperative Convective Precipitation Experiment (CCOPE) ( Knight, 1982)Convective Precipitation Experiment (COPE) ( Leon et al., 2016)Montana (CCOPE), England (COPE)National Center for Atmospheric Research C-130ICE in clouds—Tropical (ICE-T) ( Heymsfield and Willis, 2014; Johnson et al., 2014; Lawson et al., 2015) Profiling of Winter Storms (PLOWS) ( Murphy et al., 2017)St. In regions, where the flow exhibits a strong directionality, anisotropic grids can substantially reduce the number of triangular faces and hence of volume elements, without impairing the solution accuracy (see Fig.
For example, a simulation with RANS does not require high grid resolution in the span-wise direction of a wing or a blade. The same holds for a fuselage in the axial direction.
Savings in the number of surface triangles between factor 2 and 6 were reported in Refs. However, as demonstrated in Fig. 11.22, it is important to orient the surface elements properly, particularly in areas of high curvature. Otherwise, the true surface contour becomes poorly represented and the flow solution will be falsified. Stretched surface grids can be generated by any of the above methodologies for anisotropic grids (for a general discussion of surface grid generation see, e.g., Refs. 16, 75, 114).
The stretching ratio and orientation is usually specified through a line source. Another possibility consists of generating first an isotropic grid in parametric coordinates. Then, the grid is transformed into the physical space by using stretching functions. In filament winding ( Figure 39 ), a filamentous yarn or tow is first wetted by a resin and then uniformly and regularly wound around a rotating mandrel along a predescribed path. Also preimpregnated tapes can be used at a an alternative. After the wound stage, the composite is curved by heating at a given temperature in an over or autoclave or by exposure to IR radiation, and the mandrel is removed.
Typical products range from a simple pipe to an aircraft fuselage, while typical materials include glass, carbon or aramid fibers coupled to polyester, vinyl ester or epoxy resin. The principal advantage of filament winding over other methods for composite fabrication is the possibility of adopting automation and robotic procedures. The greast disadvantage is the geometric limitation of available tools, including the inability to wind on negatively curved (concave) surfaces.
Also in filament winding the processing behaviour is strongly dependent on resin characteristics. The final fiber content is a function of the radial motion of the fiber with respect to the resin during winding. This motion is a consequences of the forces acting on the fibers, i.e. The imposed tension and the friction between the fiber and the resin (which is a function of matrix viscosity).
(A) The lower river segments of the Nyack floodplain as in Fig. 28.5; the red box indicates the location of the image below. (B) Airborne digital image of the visible spectral data (blue: 450–520 nm, green: 520–600 nm, red: 630–690 nm) obtained using a high-resolution (. Wright, in, 2001 Airborne Lidar Coastal MappingThe use of airborne lidar (light detection and ranging) sensors for meeting coastal mapping requirements is a relatively new and promising application of laser-ranging technology. These applications include high-density surveying of coastline and beach morphology and shallow water bathymetry. The capability to measure distance accurately with lidar sensors has been available since the early 1970s, but their application to airborne surveying of terrestrial features was seriously hampered by the lack of knowledge of the position of the aircraft from which the measurement was made.
The implementation of the Department of Defense GPS constellation of satellites in the late 1980s, coupled with the development of GPS receiver technology, has resulted in the capability to provide the position of a GPS antenna located on an aircraft fuselage in flight to an accuracy approaching 5 cm using kinematic differential methodology. These methods involve the use of a fixed receiver (generally located at the staging airport) and a mobile receiver that is fixed to the aircraft fuselage.
The distance between mobile and fixed receivers, referred to as the baseline, is typically on the order of tens of kilometers, and can be extended to hundreds of kilometers by using dual frequency survey grade GPS receivers aided by tracking the phase code of the carrier from each frequency.Modern airborne lidars are capable of acquiring 5000 or more discrete range measurements per second. Aircraft attitude and heading information are used along with the GPS-determined platform position to locate the position of the laser pulse on the Earth’s surface to a vertical accuracy approaching 10 cm with some highly accurate systems. NASA’s Airborne Topographic Mapper (ATM) is an example of a topographic mapping lidar used for coastal surveying applications. An example of data from ATM shows shoreline features off the east coast of the USA ( Figure 2). ATM was originally developed to measure changes in the elevation of Arctic ice sheets in response to global warming. The sensor was applied to measurements of changes in coastal morphology beginning in 1995.
Presently, baseline topographic surveys exist for most of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts between central Maine and Texas and for large sections of the Pacific coast. Affected sections of coastline are re-occupied following major coastal storms, such as hurricanes and ‘Nor’easters’, to determine the extent of erosion and depositional patterns resulting from the storms. Additional details on the ATM and some results of investigations on coastal morphology can be found on websites ( and http://aol.wff.nasa.gov/aoltm/projects/beachmap/98results/). Aviation Disaster DrillA large international airport held a full-scale real-time disaster drill. A team of national observers had been chosen to watch the drill and comment in the after-action review.
One of the observers was a DBH professional experienced in aviation disasters.The setting for the exercise was impressive—directly on a large body of water and directly adjacent to an active runway, with wide-bodied jets landing or taking off nearby every few minutes. The script for the drill was that a large passenger jet had crashed in the water alongside the runway and sunk.
Divers played the role of passengers in the submerged fuselage. Rescue divers needed to extract them from the wreckage and bring the passenger divers to a barge at the surface.
The diver passengers “tagged” high school students waiting on the barge, who took over the role of a designated passenger. The students had received professional moulage makeup representing their physical condition. As the student passengers, whose condition was designated as ambulatory, were brought to shore, they were to be transferred to buses and taken to a special area in the terminal for appropriate nonemergency medical care and DBH support.The drill went quickly awry, however, as members of the response team helped the ambulatory off the boat and directed them to go to the evacuation bus—some 150 feet away in the direction of the runway.
Some of the students did not understand the directions, and were wandering about confused in the chaos of the scene. They were also unnoticed by the response team. The situation posed a genuine and immediate danger because the nearby runway was still very active. There were also a large number of emergency vehicles moving about. The observer team, prohibited from commenting during the actual drill, nevertheless felt the need to intervene early and point out the problem to prevent some of the students from becoming genuine casualties.In the after-action review, the DBH observer noted that these students had not even gone through the traumatic experience of an aviation incident, but were still confused by the rescue team’s instructions, as well as by the chaotic scene in which they found themselves, and therefore had difficulty following the team’s directions. How much more difficult would it be for someone who had just experienced the traumatic experience of a violent aviation disaster? Instructions were reviewed and procedures were added to escort the ambulatory survivors to the designated buses.
The disaster response plan was also changed to include DBH professionals to accompany the ambulatory survivors on the buses. Whitmore, in, 2018 Jet Aircraft Take OverThe new American aircraft carried more passengers, was faster, and had a longer range than the Comet 4, and Boeing had learned from the technical problems of its predecessor. While sales of the Comet stagnated by the time 100 aircraft had been built, over 850 Boeing 707s were sold around the world. Douglas, who had hitherto dominated the airliner market, paid dearly for the delay in producing the DC-8 jet, selling barely half as many aircraft as Boeing ( Boeing, n.d.). The Bristol Britannia also arrive too late to compete with jets and other turboprops. Boeing was soon outselling second-ranked Douglas by nearly two to one and began to dominate the market with new airliners. Despite its setbacks, Britain was still well positioned to take advantage of its hard-won experience with jet aircraft.
As an island on the edge of Europe, air travel to continental destinations was an attractive option compared with land and sea alternatives. Many of the busiest routes in Europe, as well as intercontinental services, fanned out from London. Market research had identified strong potential for a 100-seat jet aircraft with a range of about 2500 km for European routes. A design was developed by de Havilland but, under pressure from their key purchaser, British European Airways (BEA), the seating capacity was reduced. This increased production costs, reduced revenue-earning potential ( Fig. 9) and, worse still, delayed the new Trident's debut by almost two years. It was preempted by the Boeing 727, which closely matched the original Trident specification.
Nearly 2000 Boeing 727s were sold, 20 times the number of Tridents and double the number of Douglas DC-9s, their nearest competitors. A British attempt to compete with American long-haul jets with the Vickers VC-10 also failed for similar reasons ( Fig. A golden opportunity had been squandered. The three-engine Trident had real potential to capture a substantial part of the market for jet aircraft on short-haul routes (especially in Europe) in the 1960s, but the initial aircraft was too small.
The Boeing 727, which reflected the Trident's original specification, was released first and capitalized on the market. This example is a later, enlarged Trident 2. Rear-mounted jet engines had been introduced by the French Caravelle. The triple engine configuration reflected requirements by America's Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) for aircraft to have three or more engines to comply with safety margins for flight paths more than 60 min flying time away from a suitable airfield. The rear-mounted configuration was used on the contemporary Tupolev Tu-154 and Trident, while four engines were rear mounted on the Vickers VC-10 and Ilyushin Il-62.
Mark Whitmore. Although popular with passengers, only 40 Vickers VC-10s were produced for commercial use. This example is a super VC-10 and was delivered to BOAC Cunard in Mar.
After spending most of its life on the trans-Atlantic route it was used briefly on European routes with its last commercial flight from Amsterdam to London on Oct. Mark Whitmore.Airlines had quickly found that jet aircraft attracted passengers with greater speed and comfort and also offered substantial economies for operators.
Early jet engines may have been thirsty, but kerosene was substantially cheaper than higher octane fuel for piston engines, and newer designs were more efficient. Jet aircraft could also complete more revenue-earning journeys in a given time because journeys were quicker and turn-around times reduced.
Scheduled maintenance was quicker and less frequent because the engines were far simpler, so downtime was reduced. Jet propulsion also extended the life of airframes because the engines caused much less stress than the vibration of piston engines. How much do amerigas drivers make. The lower “cost per seat kilometer” allowed airlines to introduce tourist and economy class fares, and low-cost charter flights, which attracted many new passengers. By the early 1960s even turboprops were mostly consigned to regional services as a range of second-generation jets airliners entered service. The revival of the French aviation industry was marked by the Caravelle, which introduced the innovation of mounting jet engines at the rear of the fuselage, rather than aligning them with the main wings.
This freed engineers to optimize wing designs, while reducing the engine noise within the fuselage. That the aircraft sold well to Air France was no surprise, but its innate qualities for short-haul flights soon attracted nearly 300 orders from most major airlines in Western Europe and several from America. The broadly similar British Aircraft Corporation BAC 1-11, introduced a few years later, also had some success. Boeing lagged behind, but 1968 marked the arrival of the 737, powered by two engines slung below the wings, which soon dwarfed its contemporary competitors.
Many variants have since been developed and it has become by far the world's biggest selling aircraft, with around 10,000 having been produced and many more on order ( Fig 11). The low-cost Irish airline Ryanair carries more international passengers than any other airline in the world in its fleet of Boeing 737s. This Boeing 737-800 was delivered in Mar. 2007 and is taking off from Stansted airport, one of Ryanair's main hubs. Around 10,000 737s have been sold since 1968, with many more are on order, making it the world's biggest selling aircraft. Mark Whitmore.Trans-Atlantic traffic doubled in the 5 years following the arrival of the jets and kept on expanding as more airlines competed and charter flights increased. By 1958 aircraft carried more passengers than ships across the Atlantic and within a decade the great ocean liners were gone.
Domestic civil aviation also soared as jet airliners took over key routes, especially in America. Proliferation of jet airline services around the world was assisted by governments investing in longer and stronger runways, together with new, larger terminals. However, the impacts of aviation on the environment, particularly aircraft noise in the vicinity of airports and air pollution, started to become significant political issues.World air traffic increased fourfold in the 1960s. State airlines, whose scheduled flights were largely protected from competition, were generally slow to shift their focus from the established premium, business travelers, but entrepreneurs saw the potential demand for tourist travel from northern Europe to Mediterranean resorts.
Download bmglib dll project 64 free shared files from DownloadJoy and other world's most popular shared hosts. Our filtering technology ensures that only latest bmglib dll project 64 files are listed. Aug 11, 2019 The latest known version of Bmglib. The file is then saved with bmglib dll. System File Checker is a vital tool included with Windows. Sometimes resolving your DLL problems may be as simple as updating Windows with the latest Service Pack or other patch that. Bmglib.dll, File description: BMGlib.dll Errors related to bmglib.dll can arise for a few different different reasons. For instance, a faulty application, bmglib.dll has been deleted or misplaced, corrupted by malicious software present on your PC or a damaged Windows registry. Download bmglib dll project 64 download free shared files. Ae project videohive set 64 download rapidgator letitbit extabit turbobit Project 64 1 7 0 55 download from DownloadJoy and other world's most popular shared hosts. Bmglib dll download free. Jun 11, 2019 BMGLIB DLL FREE DOWNLOAD - We must emphasize that reinstalling Windows will be a very time-consuming and advanced task to resolve bmglib. I've read the readme for Rice's video. BMGLIB DLL FREE DOWNLOAD. June 11, 2019 admin Music.
Cheap, charter flights were offered as part of inclusive deals with accommodation and ground transport. The charter operators snapped up older jet aircraft, cascaded from flagship airlines as they upgraded, and their quality of service and safety were soon comparable while fares were much lower. Package tourism growth exceeded 35% annually when regulations were eased in the mid-1960s. By the mid-1970s independent operators carried more passengers than the scheduled airlines. Belatedly, the scheduled airlines recognized that tourists could fill otherwise unoccupied seats on scheduled flights.
They were also willing to fly at times when business clients would not, so expensive aircraft could be used more intensively. Another major new market to emerge was “guest workers” from the Mediterranean countries working in northern Europe, and from Asia working in the oil-rich countries of the Middle East.In the United States, like Europe, established airlines operating scheduled flights were protected by regulations, while numerous smaller operators provided more local and commuter services. Despite the constraints, independent operators found ways to offer charters and other mechanisms for cheap flights to a large and increasingly affluent population, who were seeking cheap fares, while pressure grew to allow more competition.Mass travel was also growing fast within the Communist bloc, assisted by cooperative agreements on routes and flights, and highly subsidized fares.
Development of new jet and turboprop aircraft broadly paralleled developments elsewhere. However, in the highly regulated market, a smaller range of aircraft was built in much greater numbers.
By the end of the 1960s the principal Soviet airline, Aeroflot, had a fleet of 11,000 aircraft and was flying more passengers than any other airline in the world. China's civil aviation developed slowly but, by the mid-1970s, the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) had established international services to Paris, Tokyo, and other capitals.Elsewhere in Asia, the postwar resurgence of Japan led to rapid growth in air travel and by the 1980s the passenger-kilometers flown were exceeded only by the Soviet Union and United States. JAL (Japan Air Lines) became a major international and domestic airline but was increasingly challenged by ANA (All Nippon Airways) and JAS (Japan Air System).
The busiest routes were soon approaching saturation point and, in 1964, the first high-speed rail links were opened to alleviate the pressure. Many other countries would later adopt a similar solution.Other independent nations in Australasia and Africa, especially those emerging from decolonization, often established independent national airlines. Sometimes existing regionally based airlines, such as East African Airways (covering Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania), were fragmented into separate national flag carriers. These symbols of nationhood provided independent links with the rest of the world, but many were uneconomic.
However, operators such as Singapore Airlines and Cathay Pacific were based in strategic locations for intercontinental services and prospered. Domestic services were also developed, often progressing from venerable DC-3s to turboprops such as the Dutch Fokker F27 Friendship and Hawker Siddeley HS 748. While some carriers struggled, others thrived despite the impacts of political instability and periodic conflicts. Icing potential depends upon the probability of drops of supercooled liquid impacting aircraft surfaces. Larger droplets are more likely to strike an airfoil, since they do not easily follow the flow streamlines and pass around an obstacle as do smaller droplets. The icing hazard can be insidious because of two factors: 1.Only a small amount of ice deposition can have large, deleterious effects upon lift and drag, thus reducing aircraft performance.
Hawker Siddeley Switchgear
2.Icing and the degradation of performance can increase slowly and imperceptibly, until an emergency exists.Two situations account for most reported in-flight icing encounters. Convective activity involves relatively large amounts of supercooled liquid water, and the hazard can extend to higher altitudes with the potential of significant ice accumulation in a short time. The other frequent situation involves flight through layered cloud decks. Although the supercooled liquid content can be lower than in convective situations, aircraft typically spend more time in these layered clouds, accumulating significant ice on fuselage and control surfaces. Figure 9 depicts situations contributing to this form of icing, which is especially important for commuter and general aviation aircraft operating at lower altitudes. The wind shears and turbulence often accompanying such systems can be regions where larger drops are concentrated by mixing. Sometimes, by making small altitude changes, a plane can avoid these regions of enhanced icing potential.
A summary of situations contributing to aircraft icing events. SLW stands for supercooled liquid water.Combinations of remote sensors have value for the monitoring and forecasting of icing situations. Polarimetric radars, dual-wavelength radars, wind profilers, RASS, and passive radiometric measurements can, in concert, indicate the locations of supercooled liquid. Aircraft can also accumulate icing on the ground in freezing rainstorms.
This problem is treated at major airports by application of de-icing fluids before takeoff ( see Aviation Meteorology: Aircraft Icing). Terrain-Induced Turbulence. Terrain effects can occur at all flight levels, with some disturbances affecting the stratosphere.
The flow situations can range from lee waves, bora flows (a form of density current), and rotors, to mechanically induced turbulence. Figure 10 is a Doppler lidar display showing the roll-up of a vortex sheet in the Colorado Springs area. At times, organized instabilities can occur in the forms of vertical or horizontal axis vortices. These obstacle-involved situations can be exceptionally complex when the terrain flows interact with other meteorological factors (such as lee-side inversions). Since 1964, there have been 15 major accidents and incidents in the vicinity of complex terrain ( Table 4).
EventDateLocationCommentAccident31 Mar. 1993Anchorage, AlaskaTurbulence, 747 lost engineAccident22 Dec. 1992West of Denver, ColoradoLoss of wing section and tail assembly, 2-engine cargo plane, lee waves presentAccident9 Dec. 1992West of Denver, ColoradoDC-8 cargo plane, loss of engine, lee waves presentUnknown cause accident3 Mar. 1991Colorado Springs, Colorado737 crashAccident12 Apr. 1990Vacroy Island, NorwayDC-6 CrashSevere turbulence24 Mar. 1988Cimarron, New Mexico767, 1.7G, Mountain waveSevere turbulence22 Jan.
1985Over Greenland747, +2.7GSevere turbulence24 Jan. 1984West of Boulder, ColoradoSaberliner, +0.4G to −0.4GSevere turbulence16 Jul. 1982Norton, WyomingDC-10, +1.6G to −0.6GSevere turbulence3 Nov. 1975Calgary, CanadaDC-10, +1.6GAccident2 Dec. 1968Pedro Bay, AKFairchild F27B, wind rotor suspectedAccident6 Aug.
1966Falls City, NebraskaBAC 111, wind rotor suspectedAccident5 Mar. Fuji, JapanBOAC 707, wind rotor suspectedAccident1 Mar.
1964Near Lake Tahoe, UtahParadise Air Constellation, strong lee waveAccident10 Jan. 1964East of Sangre de Cristo mountains in New MexicoB52, wind rotor suspectedOne study indicated that the general aviation accident rate was 40% higher for US mountain states than for all other continental states, and the rate was 150% higher for a selected group of mountain airports relative to a group of nonmountain airports.Table 4 indicates a pattern of sporadic encounters of aircraft with severe or extreme turbulence in the vicinity of mountains. In many cases, aircraft preceding or following the aircraft involved in the event encountered some turbulence, but not the extreme turbulence of the encounters (which often exceeded structural limits). Thus, the regions of severe or extreme turbulence may, at times, be spatially concentrated and short-lived. This makes predicting the time and location of these events more difficult.
There is a great need to define the properties of mountain-related hazards, improve short-term forecasting of these events, improve pilot training resources, and develop detection methods. Major field experiments have addressed this problem, which requires three-dimensional sampling of large volumes of the atmosphere as a function of time, documenting both surface and near-surface effects, as well as upper tropospheric and stratospheric effects. Both physical scale models and numerical models have guided the execution of field programs studying mountain flows, which require the commitment of considerable scientific and measurement resources. Figure 11 shows an example of the changes in flows encountered by a research aircraft traversing a lee wave in the Rocky Mountain region of the US. Similar strong changes were also encountered in temperature, pressure, and vertical wind speed, with great differences as a function of horizontal distance and flight level.
Doppler lidars have the ability to detect these hazards near the surface in clear air. Figure 12 is a Doppler lidar display illustrating the complexity possible for such upper-level mountain flows.
HS.748Beginning as an A. Roe project in 1958, the original Type 748 was planned as a 20-seat short/medium-range feeder airliner.
When no interest was shown in the design, it was scaled up in size and the Hawker Siddeley Group, of which Avro was a component company, decided to put the aircraft into production.The first flight of the prototype took place at Woodford on 24 June 1960. The first production aircraft, capable of seating a maximum of 48 passengers, was designated Avro 748 Series 1.
It first flew on 31 August 1961, powered by two 1298kW Rolls-Royce Dart 514 turboprops.This aircraft has a takeoff run of only 2,750 feet, for STOL performance it has a long-span wing, mounted low, with Fowler flaps driven by an electric actuator. The Rolls-Royce Dart turboprops, mounted with their jet pipes above the wings, are rated at about 2,280 hp, though some military versions have 3,200-hp Darts.
748 Srs 1Initial 44 passenger production version with two 1600 shp Rolls-Royce R.Da.6 Dart Mk 514 engines. 24 built, 4 by HAL748 Srs 1ASrs 1 modified with engines and undercarriage as the Srs 2A aircraft. (Four conversions from Srs 1)748 Srs 2Increased gross weight. Two 1910 shp Rolls-Royce R.Da.7 Dart Mk 531 engines. 148 built, 54 by HAL.748 Srs 2AFurther increase in gross weight.
As Srs 2 with two 2,290 eshp Rolls-Royce R.Da.7 Dart Mk 534-2 or Mk 535-2 engines. 107 built plus 43 converted to this standard.748 Srs 2BMain production model under British Aerospace, the 2B featured a 4-foot increase in wingspan, a further increase in weights, Mk 536 engines, and a modernised cabin.
Rolls-Royce Dart R.Da.7 Mk 536-2 engines. 26 built plus two conversions to this standard.748 Srs 2B SuperAs Srs 2B featuring a modernised flightdeck, improved efficiency and Rolls-Royce Dart R.Da.7 Mk 552-2 engines fitted with hush-kits. Eight built.748 Srs 2MSrs 2 with fuselage freight door and reinforced floor produced by HAL.
Rolls-Royce Dart R.Da.7 Mk 536-2T engines. 31 built by HAL.748 Andover CC.Mk.2VIP transport version of the Srs 2 for RAF service. 6 built.748MFInitial designation of Type 780 Andover C.1.
Prototype only G-ARRV, converted from 748 Srs 1 G-APZV.748 CoastguarderMaritime patrol variant of the Srs 2B. One conversion only G-BCDZ.748 Multi RoleMulti role development of the Coastguarder. Two conversions only.748 ASPHAL produced aircraft fitted with rotodomes as prototype Airborne Surveillance Platforms. First flew in November 1990, Two Rolls-Royce Dart RDa.7 Mk 536-2 engines. Two conversions from 748 Srs 2M.780 Andover C.1Military variant with a rear loading ramp and a 'kneeling' undercarriage. Two 2,970 eshp Rolls-Royce R.Da.12 Dart Mk.201C engines. 31 built780 Andover C.1(PR)Andover C.1 converted for Photographic Reconnaissance duties.
Two conversions.780 Andover E.3Andover C.1 converted for radio and airport aids calibration. Four conversions.780 Andover E.3AModified Andover E.3. Three conversions.Total Built381 aircraft: 262 UK-built Avro 748; 31 UK-built Avro 780 Andover C.1; 89 Avro 748 built by HAL in India.Survivors.